Every two minutes, somewhere in the world, a woman dies of cervical cancer. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 342,000 women died from the disease in 2024 alone — the overwhelming majority in low- and middle-income countries. It is one of the most preventable cancers in existence, yet it keeps killing because the tools that could stop it are not reaching the people who need them.

The cause of nearly all cervical cancer is a virus that most people have never seriously thought about: human papillomavirus, or HPV. It is the most common sexually transmitted infection on the planet. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that roughly 80% of sexually active people will be infected with at least one type of HPV during their lifetime. Most will never know it — the immune system clears the majority of infections silently within one to two years. But in some cases, certain high-risk strains linger, quietly transforming healthy cells into precancerous lesions and, eventually, into cancer.

The good news is extraordinary: we have both a screening test that can catch these changes years before cancer develops and a vaccine that prevents infection in the first place. Together, they represent one of the most powerful cancer prevention strategies in medical history. Australia, the first country to implement a national HPV vaccination program, is on pace to effectively eliminate cervical cancer as a public health problem within the next decade.

Yet confusion persists — about who should be vaccinated, when to start screening, what the tests mean, and whether men need to worry about HPV at all (they do). This article walks through the science, the guidelines, and the practical steps that could save your life or the life of someone you care about.

What Is HPV, and Why Are Some Types Dangerous?

Human papillomavirus is not a single virus — it is a family of more than 200 related viruses, each assigned a number. They spread primarily through skin-to-skin contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. Condoms reduce transmission but do not eliminate it, because HPV can infect areas of skin not covered by a condom.

Most HPV types are harmless or cause nothing more than common warts on the hands and feet. About 40 types infect the genital area. Of these, the medical community divides them into two categories:

Low-risk types cause genital warts but not cancer. HPV types 6 and 11 are responsible for approximately 90% of genital warts cases.

High-risk types can cause cancer when infection persists. At least 14 HPV types are classified as high-risk (also called oncogenic), but two stand far above the rest in clinical importance: HPV 16 and HPV 18. Together, these two types are responsible for approximately 70% of all cervical cancers worldwide, according to a landmark pooled analysis in The Lancet Oncology. HPV 16 alone accounts for roughly 55% of cases and is also the dominant type in HPV-related cancers at other sites.

The mechanism is well understood at the molecular level. High-risk HPV types produce two proteins — E6 and E7 — that disable the cell's built-in tumor suppressor systems, specifically the p53 and retinoblastoma (Rb) proteins. With these brakes removed, infected cells can accumulate genetic damage without triggering the normal self-destruct response. The progression from initial infection to invasive cancer typically takes 10 to 20 years, which is precisely why screening is so effective — it provides an enormous window to detect and treat precancerous changes before they become life-threatening.

It is critical to understand that most HPV infections do not lead to cancer. The immune system clears roughly 90% of infections within two years, according to data from the National Cancer Institute. Cancer risk arises from persistent infection — when the virus evades immune clearance and continues producing those E6 and E7 proteins year after year.

Not Just Cervical Cancer: HPV's Wider Reach

Cervical cancer gets most of the attention, but HPV causes cancer in multiple parts of the body — and not only in women.

The CDC attributes approximately 37,000 new cancers per year in the United States to HPV. The breakdown is revealing:

  • Cervical cancer: ~12,000 cases/year (virtually all HPV-caused)
  • Oropharyngeal cancer (throat, base of tongue, tonsils): ~19,000 cases/year, the majority in men
  • Anal cancer: ~7,000 cases/year (91% HPV-attributable)
  • Vulvar cancer: ~4,000 cases/year (69% HPV-attributable)
  • Vaginal cancer: ~900 cases/year (75% HPV-attributable)
  • Penile cancer: ~1,500 cases/year (63% HPV-attributable)

The most striking trend in these numbers is the rise of HPV-related oropharyngeal cancers, particularly among men. A 2019 study in Annals of Internal Medicine found that the incidence of HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer in the United States has surpassed the incidence of cervical cancer, with rates in men increasing dramatically over the past three decades. HPV 16 is responsible for the vast majority of these cases.

Anal cancer rates are also rising, especially among men who have sex with men (MSM) and immunocompromised individuals. A 2021 study in The Lancet reported that HIV-positive MSM have an anal cancer incidence of approximately 85 per 100,000 — comparable to the rate of cervical cancer in countries without screening programs.

This broader picture underscores a point that public health messaging has been slow to communicate: HPV is not a women's issue. It is a human issue. The virus causes more cancers in men than most people realize, and vaccination protects everyone.

Screening: Pap Test vs. HPV Test — What's the Difference?

Cervical cancer screening has evolved significantly over the past two decades, and many people — including some healthcare providers — still operate on outdated assumptions about what the tests are and how often they're needed.

The Pap test (Pap smear) has been used since the 1940s. A clinician collects cells from the cervix and a pathologist examines them under a microscope for abnormalities. The Pap test does not detect HPV itself — it detects cellular changes that HPV may have already caused. It is a cytology test, meaning it looks at cells.

The HPV test detects the DNA or RNA of high-risk HPV types directly, regardless of whether the virus has caused any cellular changes yet. It identifies infection before it has produced visible damage.

The distinction matters because the HPV test is significantly more sensitive. A 2020 randomized trial published in The BMJ, involving over 1.3 million women in the Netherlands, found that primary HPV screening detected 40% more cervical pre-cancers (CIN grade 3 or higher) compared to cytology-based screening at the first round. A 2021 Cochrane systematic review confirmed these findings across multiple countries: HPV testing has sensitivity of approximately 96% for detecting high-grade precancerous lesions, compared to roughly 53% for conventional Pap testing alone.

The trade-off is specificity. Because HPV infection is extremely common — especially in younger women — the HPV test will flag many infections that will clear on their own without ever causing precancer. This is why current guidelines do not recommend HPV testing as a primary screen for women under 25 or 30 (depending on the guideline body): the high rate of transient infections would trigger unnecessary follow-up procedures.

There are three main approaches to screening in current use:

  1. Pap test alone (cytology) — less sensitive, still used in some settings
  2. Co-testing — Pap test and HPV test done simultaneously
  3. Primary HPV testing — HPV test first; if positive, reflex cytology is performed on the same sample

Primary HPV testing is increasingly recognized as the preferred approach. In 2018, the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) endorsed it as an option for women aged 30–65, and multiple countries — including Australia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom — have already transitioned their national screening programs to primary HPV testing.

Screening Guidelines by Age: Who Needs What, and When

Guidelines have shifted substantially in recent years. Many people still believe they need an annual Pap smear, but that recommendation was retired over a decade ago. Here are the current guidelines from the major US bodies (the American Cancer Society and the USPSTF), as of 2024:

Under Age 21

No cervical cancer screening is recommended, regardless of sexual activity or HPV vaccination status. The rationale: HPV infections in this age group are extremely common and almost always resolve spontaneously. Screening teenagers and young adults leads to overdiagnosis, anxiety, and unnecessary procedures — including biopsies and excisions that can affect future fertility.

Ages 21–24

The USPSTF recommends Pap tests every 3 years. HPV testing is generally not recommended in this age group because transient HPV infections are so prevalent that positive results would lead to overtreatment.

Ages 25–29

The American Cancer Society (ACS) updated its guidelines in 2020 to recommend primary HPV testing every 5 years starting at age 25, which is their preferred approach. If primary HPV testing is not available, co-testing (HPV test + Pap) every 5 years or Pap alone every 3 years are acceptable alternatives.

The USPSTF recommends Pap tests every 3 years for ages 21–29, reflecting a slightly more conservative position.

Ages 30–65

Both the ACS and USPSTF agree on the options here:

  • Primary HPV testing every 5 years (ACS preferred)
  • Co-testing (HPV + Pap) every 5 years
  • Pap alone every 3 years

Over Age 65

Screening can be stopped if there is adequate prior negative screening history (defined as three consecutive negative Pap tests or two consecutive negative HPV/co-test results within the prior 10 years, with the most recent test within 5 years) and no history of CIN2 or higher within the past 25 years.

After Hysterectomy

If the cervix was removed (total hysterectomy) for a non-cancerous reason and there is no history of CIN2+, screening is no longer needed.

These guidelines apply to average-risk individuals. People with HIV, immunosuppression, previous cervical precancer, or in-utero DES exposure need more frequent screening — discuss your specific situation with your healthcare provider.

Tracking your screening schedule can be challenging, especially when the intervals are 3 to 5 years. WatchMyHealth's health reminders feature can help you set a future alert for your next screening date, so you never lose track of when you're due.

What Happens When a Test Comes Back Abnormal?

An abnormal result does not mean you have cancer. In most cases, it means the test detected something that warrants a closer look.

If an HPV test is positive but cytology is negative or shows only minor changes (ASC-US), guidelines generally recommend either repeat testing in one year or, if the specific type is HPV 16 or 18, immediate colposcopy.

Colposcopy is the standard follow-up procedure. The clinician examines the cervix under magnification using a special microscope (colposcope) and applies a dilute acetic acid solution that makes abnormal areas turn white. If suspicious areas are identified, small biopsies are taken.

Biopsy results are graded using the CIN system (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia):

  • CIN 1 — mild dysplasia, usually managed with observation ("watchful waiting") because the majority regress spontaneously
  • CIN 2 — moderate dysplasia, may be observed in younger patients or treated
  • CIN 3 — severe dysplasia / carcinoma in situ, almost always treated

Treatment for CIN 2/3 typically involves an excisional procedure such as LEEP (loop electrosurgical excision procedure) or cold knife conization, which removes the affected tissue. These procedures are highly effective — cure rates exceed 90% — though they carry a small increased risk of preterm delivery in future pregnancies, which is one reason conservative management is sometimes preferred for CIN 2 in young patients who plan to have children.

The key message: the screening-to-treatment pathway is designed to intercept the disease during the precancerous phase, long before invasive cancer develops. When screening guidelines are followed, cervical cancer is one of the most preventable cancers in medicine.

The HPV Vaccine: Gardasil 9 and What It Covers

The development of the HPV vaccine stands as one of the most significant achievements in cancer prevention.

The currently used vaccine in most countries is Gardasil 9 (9-valent HPV vaccine), manufactured by Merck. It targets nine HPV types:

  • HPV 16 and 18 — responsible for ~70% of cervical cancers and the majority of other HPV-related cancers
  • HPV 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58 — five additional high-risk types that collectively account for an additional ~20% of cervical cancers
  • HPV 6 and 11 — the two low-risk types responsible for ~90% of genital warts

In total, Gardasil 9 protects against HPV types responsible for approximately 90% of cervical cancers, 90% of anal cancers, and 90% of genital warts.

The clinical evidence is extraordinary. A landmark 2020 study in The New England Journal of Medicine, tracking over 1.6 million Swedish women for 11 years, found that the HPV vaccine reduced the risk of invasive cervical cancer by 88% in women vaccinated before age 17, and by 53% in those vaccinated between ages 17 and 30. A 2021 study in The Lancet analyzing data from 14 high-income countries confirmed large-scale reductions: among vaccinated populations, HPV 16 and 18 infections dropped by 83% in girls aged 13–19, and cervical precancer (CIN2+) decreased by 51% in women aged 15–24 screened after vaccination programs began.

The vaccine works by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies against the L1 capsid protein of each HPV type. These are virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines — they contain proteins that mimic the virus structure but contain no viral DNA and cannot cause infection. The immune response produced by the vaccine is actually stronger and more durable than the response to natural infection, because natural HPV infection is surprisingly poor at triggering systemic immunity (the virus largely evades the immune system by staying in the surface epithelium).

Who Should Get Vaccinated — and When

The recommended vaccination schedule has expanded significantly since the first HPV vaccine was approved in 2006.

Routine Vaccination

The CDC recommends HPV vaccination for all children at age 11–12, though it can be given as early as age 9. The vaccine is administered in a two-dose series (at 0 and 6–12 months) when the first dose is given before the 15th birthday.

If vaccination begins at age 15 or older, a three-dose series is required (at 0, 1–2, and 6 months).

The reason vaccination targets preteens is simple: the vaccine is most effective when given before any exposure to HPV. It is a preventive vaccine, not a therapeutic one — it prevents new infections but does not clear existing ones. Vaccinating at 11–12 also produces a stronger immune response than vaccination at older ages.

Catch-Up Vaccination for Adults

The CDC recommends catch-up vaccination for everyone through age 26 who has not been adequately vaccinated.

For adults ages 27 to 45, the CDC recommends shared clinical decision-making — meaning the vaccine is not universally recommended for this group but may be appropriate for individuals who were not previously vaccinated and are at risk for new HPV infections. The benefit is reduced in this age range because most adults have already been exposed to some HPV types, but the vaccine can still protect against types they haven't encountered.

A 2023 study in JAMA Network Open found that among adults aged 27–45 who received the vaccine, there was still a significant reduction in incident HPV infections with vaccine-targeted types, supporting the value of catch-up vaccination even in this older group.

Vaccination Is for Everyone, Not Just Girls

When HPV vaccines were first introduced, many programs targeted only girls. This was a strategic error that public health agencies have since corrected. The CDC now recommends vaccination for all genders equally, and for good reason:

  • Men develop HPV-related cancers of the oropharynx, anus, and penis
  • Vaccinating boys reduces transmission to partners of all genders
  • MSM do not benefit from herd immunity generated by female-only vaccination programs
  • Oropharyngeal cancer caused by HPV is now more common than cervical cancer in the United States, and the majority of cases occur in men

A 2022 modeling study in The Lancet Public Health demonstrated that gender-neutral vaccination programs achieve herd immunity thresholds faster and more equitably than female-only programs, with the greatest additional benefit seen in prevention of oropharyngeal and anal cancers.

If you're getting vaccinated as an adult, WatchMyHealth's medication tracking feature can help you stay on schedule with the multi-dose series, sending you reminders for your second and third doses at the appropriate intervals.

Safety: What the Data Actually Shows

The HPV vaccine is one of the most extensively studied vaccines in history. Since its introduction in 2006, over 600 million doses have been administered worldwide.

The safety profile is robust. A 2020 Cochrane systematic review — the gold standard of evidence synthesis — analyzed 26 randomized controlled trials involving over 73,000 participants and found no increased risk of serious adverse events compared to placebo or control vaccines. The most common side effects were injection site pain, swelling, and redness — typical of any intramuscular injection.

Specific concerns that circulated online have been systematically investigated and debunked:

Autoimmune diseases. A 2019 cohort study in The BMJ, following over 3 million Danish and Swedish women, found no association between HPV vaccination and 45 different autoimmune conditions, including multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and lupus.

Guillain-Barré syndrome. A 2020 meta-analysis published in Vaccine pooled data from multiple large-scale studies and found no statistically significant increased risk of GBS following HPV vaccination.

Fertility. A 2022 systematic review in Human Reproduction Update found no evidence that HPV vaccination affects fertility, ovarian function, or pregnancy outcomes. In fact, by preventing HPV-related precancerous lesions that require excisional treatment — which can affect cervical competence — the vaccine may actually protect future fertility.

Premature ovarian insufficiency. Multiple large cohort studies, including a 2021 analysis in Pediatrics examining insurance claims data for over 400,000 vaccinated girls, found no association.

The World Health Organization's Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety has repeatedly reaffirmed the safety of HPV vaccines and explicitly states that the benefits far outweigh any theoretical risks.

Australia's Success Story: What Near-Elimination Looks Like

If you want to see what happens when a country takes HPV seriously, look at Australia.

Australia launched a national school-based HPV vaccination program in 2007 for girls, expanded it to boys in 2013, and transitioned its cervical screening program from Pap smears to primary HPV testing in 2017. The results have been staggering.

A 2018 study in The Lancet Public Health projected that Australia would effectively eliminate cervical cancer as a public health problem (defined as fewer than 4 cases per 100,000 women per year) by 2028 — making it the first country in the world to do so. A follow-up analysis in 2023 confirmed the country was on track.

The numbers tell the story:

  • HPV 16 and 18 prevalence among young women dropped from 23% to less than 1% within a decade of the vaccination program's introduction
  • Genital warts diagnoses declined by over 90% in young women and by 70–80% in young men by 2020
  • Cervical precancer (high-grade abnormalities) in women under 25 dropped by over 70%
  • Herd immunity effects were observed in unvaccinated populations, including older women and heterosexual men

The Australian model works for several reasons. First, the school-based delivery system achieves vaccination coverage of approximately 80% of the target population — far higher than the ~60% achieved in the United States, where vaccination depends on individual healthcare visits. Second, the transition to primary HPV testing improved screening sensitivity and efficiency. Third, the program is publicly funded and free for the target age groups, eliminating cost as a barrier.

Dr. Ian Frazer, the immunologist who co-invented the technology underlying the HPV vaccine at the University of Queensland, has described Australia's trajectory as proof that cervical cancer elimination is not a theoretical goal — it is an achievable public health outcome that depends entirely on political will and program implementation.

Other countries are now following Australia's lead. The WHO launched a global strategy in 2020 targeting cervical cancer elimination worldwide, with milestones of 90% vaccination coverage, 70% screening coverage, and 90% treatment access by 2030.

The Global Inequality Problem

While wealthy nations move toward elimination, cervical cancer remains a devastating killer in low- and middle-income countries.

According to the WHO, approximately 90% of cervical cancer deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest burden, with countries like Eswatini, Malawi, and Zimbabwe reporting age-standardized incidence rates exceeding 60 per 100,000 women — more than ten times the rate in countries with established screening and vaccination programs.

The barriers are familiar but no less urgent: limited access to the vaccine, absence of organized screening programs, shortage of trained healthcare workers to perform colposcopies and treatments, and the competing demands of HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria on overburdened health systems. A 2023 study in The Lancet Global Health estimated that at current rates, low-income countries would not achieve cervical cancer elimination until after 2100 — nearly a century behind high-income nations.

Several initiatives are working to close this gap. The WHO's prequalification of newer HPV vaccines and the approval of single-dose vaccination regimens (discussed below) could dramatically simplify delivery logistics. GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance, has supported the introduction of HPV vaccination in over 40 low-income countries. And innovations like self-collection for HPV testing — where women take their own vaginal swabs — have been shown in multiple trials, including a 2024 study in The BMJ, to be as accurate as clinician-collected samples and dramatically increase screening participation in underserved populations.

The Single-Dose Revolution

One of the most important recent developments in HPV prevention is the growing evidence that a single dose of the HPV vaccine may provide protection comparable to the standard two- or three-dose regimen.

A pivotal 2022 trial published in The New England Journal of Medicine (the KEN SHE trial) found that a single dose of the HPV vaccine was 97.5% effective against HPV 16 and 18 infection after 18 months — virtually identical to the multi-dose schedule.

In response, the WHO updated its recommendations in 2022 to include a single-dose option as an alternative schedule. This was a landmark shift. A single-dose regimen slashes costs, simplifies logistics (no need for a second visit months later), and makes vaccination feasible in settings where multi-dose programs have struggled with completion rates.

A 2023 modeling study in The Lancet Oncology estimated that switching to single-dose vaccination in low-income countries could prevent an additional 1.5 million cervical cancer cases by 2070, simply by increasing achievable coverage. When the barrier to vaccination drops from three doses to one, the number of people you can reach expands enormously.

Long-term durability data is still being collected — the KEN SHE trial continues to follow participants, and multiple additional trials are underway in several countries. But the initial data is extremely encouraging, and the WHO, GAVI, and multiple national programs are already incorporating single-dose strategies.

Men and HPV: The Conversation We're Not Having

Despite causing thousands of cancers in men every year, HPV awareness among men remains strikingly low.

A 2021 survey published in Preventive Medicine found that only 35% of men in the United States were aware that HPV could cause cancer in males. Even fewer knew that the vaccine was recommended for them. HPV vaccination rates in boys and young men consistently lag behind girls — in the US, the rate of completing the HPV vaccine series by age 17 was approximately 58% for boys compared to 65% for girls in 2022, according to CDC data.

This is a significant public health gap. HPV-related oropharyngeal cancer — which affects the base of the tongue, tonsils, and back of the throat — is increasing at an alarming rate among men. Unlike cervical cancer, there is currently no approved screening test for oropharyngeal HPV infection. By the time symptoms appear (persistent sore throat, difficulty swallowing, a lump in the neck), the cancer is often at an advanced stage.

Anal cancer screening is another area where guidance is evolving. In 2021, results from the ANCHOR trial in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2022 demonstrated that treating high-grade anal precancerous lesions in people living with HIV reduced the risk of anal cancer by 57%. This has strengthened the case for anal cancer screening programs in high-risk populations, including HIV-positive individuals and MSM, using anal Pap tests (anal cytology) and high-resolution anoscopy.

For men in the general population, the most effective intervention remains vaccination. There is no routine screening test for HPV in men outside of high-risk groups, making prevention through vaccination all the more critical.

Living With an HPV Diagnosis: What You Should Know

Receiving a positive HPV test result can provoke anxiety, shame, or confusion. Understanding what the result means — and what it doesn't — is essential.

A positive HPV test is extremely common. It does not mean you have cancer or will develop cancer. Most high-risk HPV infections are cleared by the immune system without any intervention. The test identifies people who need closer monitoring, not people who are in immediate danger.

You cannot determine when or from whom you acquired the infection. HPV can remain dormant for years or even decades before being detected on a test. A positive result today says nothing about recent sexual behavior — it may reflect an infection acquired many years ago.

There is no treatment for the virus itself. Unlike bacterial STIs, HPV cannot be treated with antibiotics. The body must clear the infection on its own. What can be treated are the consequences of persistent infection — precancerous lesions and warts — which is why follow-up according to your provider's recommendations is essential.

Lifestyle factors that support immune function matter. While no supplement or diet has been proven to clear HPV, the evidence is clear that smoking significantly impairs HPV clearance and increases the risk of progression to cancer. A 2019 meta-analysis in European Journal of Cancer Prevention found that current smokers had a 2.3-fold increased risk of persistent high-risk HPV infection compared to non-smokers. Quitting smoking is one of the most impactful things you can do if you test positive for high-risk HPV.

Disclosure to partners is a personal decision. There are no legal requirements to disclose HPV status in most jurisdictions. Because the infection is so common and often transient, and because there is no HPV test available for male partners, the practical utility of disclosure is debated. However, partners who are not yet vaccinated should know that catch-up vaccination may still provide benefit.

WatchMyHealth can support you through this process — use the symptom logging feature to track any changes you notice between appointments, and set screening reminders to ensure you stay current with follow-up testing.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can I get the HPV vaccine if I've already been infected? Yes. The vaccine will not clear an existing infection, but HPV has many types. Even if you've been exposed to one or two, the vaccine protects against the others included in Gardasil 9 that you may not have encountered.

Does the HPV vaccine make screening unnecessary? No. Even Gardasil 9, which covers ~90% of cancer-causing types, does not cover all high-risk HPV types. Vaccinated individuals should still follow screening guidelines, though some experts anticipate that screening intervals may be lengthened for vaccinated populations in the future.

Can HPV be transmitted through oral sex? Yes. Oral HPV infection is the cause of most oropharyngeal cancers. A 2017 study in Annals of Oncology found that individuals with oral HPV 16 infection had a 22-fold increased risk of developing oropharyngeal cancer compared to those without oral infection.

Is there a test for oral HPV? Currently, there is no FDA-approved screening test for oral HPV. Research is ongoing into oral rinse-based HPV tests, but they are not yet recommended for routine clinical use.

My doctor said I only need screening every 5 years. Is that really safe? Yes — if using HPV-based testing. The progression from new HPV infection to invasive cancer takes 10–20 years, meaning a 5-year interval provides multiple opportunities for detection. Studies confirm that 5-year HPV-based screening intervals provide equal or better protection against cervical cancer compared to 3-year cytology intervals.

I'm over 26. Is it too late to get vaccinated? Not necessarily. The vaccine is approved up to age 45. While the benefit is greatest when given before HPV exposure, adults who were not previously vaccinated can still benefit. Discuss with your healthcare provider.

The Bottom Line: What to Do Now

HPV-related cancers are among the most preventable cancers in existence. The path to prevention is clear:

1. Get vaccinated. If you are under 26 and have not completed the HPV vaccine series, do so. If you are 27–45 and were never vaccinated, talk to your doctor about whether it makes sense for you. Ensure the boys and young men in your life are vaccinated too — this is not a women-only issue.

2. Follow screening guidelines. If you have a cervix, make sure you are up to date on cervical cancer screening. Ask your provider whether your practice offers primary HPV testing, which is more sensitive than Pap testing alone.

3. Don't skip follow-up. If you have an abnormal result, complete the recommended follow-up. The entire system is designed to catch problems at a stage where they are completely treatable.

4. Quit smoking. If you test positive for high-risk HPV, stopping smoking is one of the single most effective things you can do to help your body clear the infection.

5. Advocate for others. Talk to friends, partners, and family members about HPV vaccination. The stigma around STIs prevents many people from having conversations that could save lives.

Australia has shown the world that cervical cancer elimination is not a fantasy — it is an achievable outcome within a single generation. The tools exist. The science is settled. What remains is ensuring that these tools reach everyone who needs them.